CTM Solutions

What Comes After Silicon? by Randy Hoffner reprinted from http://www.TVTechnology.com 3/6/2012

Let's talk about silicon-- semiconductors, that is.

The concept of the transistor dates back to at least 1925, when a physicist named Julius Edgar Lilenfeld obtained a Canadian patent for a field-effect transistor. He later obtained U.S. patents for the same device, although he never published any papers about the device or described a working model. In 1947, Bell Telephone Labs devised a working germanium transistor, and in 1951, announced a working junction transistor. The prototypes were of course considerably larger than the vacuum tubes they eventually replaced, and the early production devices were quite fragile electrically. I remember as a young lad experimenting with and learning about radio and electronics in the 1950's, thinking that transistors probably did not have much of a future. Oh well. Doped silicon semiconductors have for decades been the basis of the ever more complex and powerful electronics that have become such a central part of our lives, both personal and professional. In 1960, an electrical engineer named Douglas Engelbart proposed the idea that if the basic circuitry of digital computers, which then consisted of vacuum tubes, could be reduced in size, this could lead to a dramatic increase in their power.  MOORE'S LAW We are all familiar with a lithographic chemist named Gordon Moore, who in 1965 stated in an article in "Electronics," that the number of components that could be incorporated per integrated circuit would increase exponentially over time. This became known as Moore's Law. Since 1970, the number of components per chip of a given size has doubled every two years. This has produced a "virtuous cycle," in which the size, component density, and power of electronic devices has steadily increased. According to "More Than Moore," a white paper published by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), in 1954, five years before the integrated circuit was invented, the average price of a transistor was $5.52. By 2004, the price had dropped to a billionth of a dollar per transistor. Computer processor chips are comprised of complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) devices, which were called complementary-symmetry metal oxide semiconductors or "cos-mos," by their inventor, RCA. CMOS transistors use considerably less power than bipolar transistors, making the exponentially increasing numbers of transistors practical, up to a point. But the doubling of the density of CMOS transistor fabrication every two years has reached the point at which real limits have appeared. In 2011 the target semiconductor feature size shrank from the 2009 target of 32 nanometers (32 x 10-9 meter) to 22 nanometers. At 32 nanometers, the gate oxide thickness is 1.2 nanometers, or 5 silicon atoms thick. At this point, electron tunneling through short channels, thin insulator films and their associated leakage currents, ever-increasing clock speeds, and other effects have led to increased fabrication costs and the generation of a furious amount of heat. Ten years ago, Intel's chief technology officer warned that if trends continued in the way they had been going, by 2011, microprocessor chips would reach the surface temperature of the sun. CARBON NANOTUBE TRANSISTORS One technology that is being explored as a replacement for today's semiconductors is the use of carbon nanotubes to make carbon nanotube field-effect transistors, or CNFETs. Carbon atoms are found in four different allotropes, or structural forms. The atoms may be bound in tetrahedral lattices, in which form they are known as diamond; in multiple sheets of hexagonal lattices, in which form they are known as graphite; in the form of graphene, which is a single sheet of graphite; or as fullerenes, where the atoms are bound together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoid formations. Graphene is a single sheet of carbon bound in the form of a hexagonal lattice resembling a tiny chicken-wire sort of structure that has the unique property that it can roll up, forming a hollow cylinder a few atoms wide (see Fig. 1). Owing to quantum mechanics, depending on the angle at which the graphene is cut from the sheet, the resulting nanotube has a particular chirality, or "twist," which chirality gives the nanotube electrical properties ranging from metallic conduction, to semiconduction, to a small gap. A semiconducting nanotube is placed on a substrate, with gold forming the contacts: the sources, gates, and drains of the field effect transistors. It is hoped that within the next five years this method will produce semiconductors whose feature size is as small as 7 nanometers. The world as we know it has become dependent on digital devices of ever increasing complexity and power. Somewhat ironically, this boils down to making a lot of ever smaller and ever faster on/off switches. Practical carbon nanotube transistors could keep this game running for a few more Moore's Law cycles, which will give us more time to come up with the next step. Of course, when we reach the point where we can make single-atom digital switches, that would appear to be the end of it. Unless we can devise a quark switch. Jim Alfonse
Tri-Sys Designs
www.Tri-SysDesigns.com
jim@tri-sysdesigns.com
These general interest articles are sent out occasionally as a service to my friends and clients. Enjoy. All views and information are presented by the credited author and/or website. If you know of anyone who you think would like to receive these articles, have them send me an e-mail.
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The Road to 3-D

BY ALDO CUGNINI

reprinted from http://broadcastengineering.com/RF/road-3d/

The tools are available to help digital television add a dimension.

Although 3-D content is widely available in theaters, and 3-D disc players are now on retail shelves, terrestrial digital television has not caught up yet, and a standard supporting 3-D transmission is not yet in the books. Last year, the ATSC concluded a study of 3-D television, with a goal of producing a report on the benefits and limitations of a standard or a set of standards for terrestrial delivery of 3-D television. The report covered various elements of 3-D, including visual sciences and technology. This article will examine various solutions that may become part of a future terrestrial standard for 3-D transmission.

INDEPENDENT DISPLAY CODING

In one option, the 3-D program can be independent and different from the 2D program. These types of 3-D transmission architectures fall into two large classes: those in which the 3-D program is transmitted alongside a separate, essentially identical, 2D program, and those in which the 2D and 3-D programs are different productions of the same program.

When 3-D and 2D content are coded independently, this can be called MPEG-2 Dual; the 2D view is separately coded, plus independent left and right views are coded, all using MPEG-2 coding. Basically, broadcasters are coding three different versions of the same program, and transmitting them in the multiplex. Alternatively, MPEG-2 MVC (Multi-view Coding) can be used for the 3-D program, using inter-view prediction. This latter option uses coding tools, in which one view is coded in a main-profile (MP) base layer, and that layer is used to predict the other view in an enhancement layer with temporal scalability tools. However, MPEG-2 MVP is not expected to offer a significant coding gain over the independent encoding of the two views, owing to the limitations of MPEG-2 coding efficiency.

Frame-compatible 3-D is an architecture in which the left and right views are decimated (usually by a factor of 2) and arranged into a frame-compatible format such as side-by-side or top-and-bottom. These frame-compatible formats fit into a conventional 30Hz frame period, so no additional baseband bandwidth is needed, and conventional baseband video equipment can route the signals. (Of course, the spatial resolution at the home receiver is compromised with respect to a 2D program.) Frame-compatible video can be encoded using a conventional MPEG-2 or H.264 Advanced Video Coding (AVC) codec, but it cannot be displayed on a 2D display, which cannot separate or properly integrate the left and right views. Again, the independent 2D program is separately coded using MPEG-2.

A variation of frame-compatible 3-D is full-resolution frame-compatible 3-D, in which the same frame-packing arrangement is used to encode the left and right views, but no sub-sampling is performed. Thus, a higher baseband bandwidth is required at the codec I/O, with an associated decrease in efficiency compared with inter-view predictive coding. In this format, the 3-D program is most likely coded using AVC, as MPEG-2 could not handle the increased bandwidth, especially with the 2D program also present in the multiplex.

MVC 3-D is a format in which the left and right views are coded at full resolution, either independently using AVC or jointly using MVC with inter-view prediction. The latter approach can result in a lower bandwidth requirement than independent coding. But it comes with a hardware tradeoff between an architecture supporting two compression streams, and two parallel codecs, versus one more-complex stream.

An alternative to MVC with inter-view prediction is AVC frame compatible with resolution enhancement, in which the base layer carries the left and right views in a frame-compatible format, and the enhancement layer carries the “difference information” needed to provide full resolution. This format provides a migration path that would enable 3-D receivers to be built today, using existing AVC tools for the base layer. Later receivers would add full resolution, using AVC tools not yet developed. Those early receivers would thus be compatible with, but not capable of displaying, the future format.

DEPENDENT DISPLAY CODING

Figure 1. Hybrid shared architecture using inter-view prediction

 

The other option is for the 3-D program to be dependent and related to the 2D program. When one view is used as the 2D program, and both views provide the 3-D program, shared coding is an option in which either both views are coded independently, or MVP is used to predict one view from the other. (See Figure 1.)

There is some sensitivity in the production community that this type of coding arrangement constrains the director's ability to shoot the scene because one view is subservient to the other. Nonetheless, it can provide savings in both production budgets and transmission bandwidth.

Again, as with the independent formats, both views can be coded using MPEG-2, or a hybrid system could be utilized that encodes the “default” view using MPEG-2 and the second view with AVC or another advanced codec, such as high-efficiency video coding (HEVC). With this architecture, one consideration deserving careful scrutiny is the fact that the left and right views are coded by different means, a point that applies to other formats as well. The result can be different compression artifacts in the two views, causing some peculiar effects. Demonstrations of hybrid architectures suggest this could be acceptable with further study.

DEPTH-BASED CODING

An alternative to coding left and right views is the use of a depth map, a grayscale video picture in which the depth of an object in the image is coded by using different intensity levels. The depth map then is coded as an ordinary video stream, using AVC or another advanced codec. Transmission variations include combinations of the techniques discussed previously.

Depth information must be extracted (or synthesized) from original left and right views, or from temporal information derived from moving objects or a moving camera. This 2D-plus-depth-map technology is still in an early stage, so error-free depth information is not yet achievable. In addition, the decoder must re-generate the second view, which adds computational complexity. Nonetheless, the approach has interesting applications, especially for animation and graphics.

FUTURE WORK

As the solutions studied in the ATSC report must be backwards-compatible with existing MPEG-2 receivers, all the variations considered include a standard 2D-content channel using MPEG-2 coding. But such a constraint likely will be lifted somewhere down the road, when MPEG-2 eventually is made obsolete by AVC and HEVC.

In the meantime, a system can be developed that fits into existing transmission standards, and that means that consumer products could be available in 2013. A full analysis of the pros and cons of each of the discussed approaches can be found in the Planning Team 1 Report on 3-DTV at the ATSC website, www.atsc.org.

 

Aldo Cugnini is a consultant in the digital television industry.

Send questions and comments to: aldo.cugnini@penton.com

 

 

 

Jim Alfonse
Tri-Sys Designs
www.Tri-SysDesigns.com
jim@tri-sysdesigns.com

 

These general interest articles are sent out occasionally as a service to my friends and clients. Enjoy.

All views and information are presented by the credited author and/or website.

If you know of anyone who you think would like to receive these articles, have them send me an e-mail.
If you would like to be removed from this list send me an e-mail.

Arri Alexa LUT Color Correction Effects

Click the link to download.
Extract the zip file and open the bin in your Avid project.

Apply the Color Correction Effect on an Alexa logC clip or put it on an empty track above to view the footage in linear space with gamma and highlight roll off.

Legal maps the footage to 16-235. 
Extended maps the footage to 0-255.

Note: The effects are basically 1D LUTs (8bit with 16 samples) and they don't convert properly to Rec709 colors.
In an attempt to fix that I added a little saturation to the effects with the suffix "SatBoost".

 

Cool feature:
Since the s-curve is downstream in the color corrector you can set the exposure by adjusting Brightness in the HSL tab. 

A brightness value of 18 should be similar to one stop in exposure.
(36 = 2 stops and so on.)

Add some punch with Contrast if the Brightness adjustment washes out the image.

Understanding AVCHD

Oct 1, 2011 12:00 PM, BY STEVE MULLEN

reprinted from the http://www.BroadcastEngineering.com webpage

The figures have been removed due to limitations of this forum. To view the complete article go to 

http://broadcastengineering.com/production/understanding_avchd/

Sorry for the inconvenience - Jim

 

The codec differs from H.264/AVC in several ways.

 

When DVCAM, DVCPRO and DVCPRO50 were introduced, manufacturers positioned these proprietary formats as “professional” compared to the “consumer” DV format. After working with all four formats, it became clear that differences were confined to their tape recording system. DV, DVCAM, DVCPRO and DVCPRO50 all use the same video codec. (DVCPRO50 employs dual 25Mb/s DV codecs.)

AVCHD, developed jointly by Panasonic and Sony, is a proprietary version of H.264/AVC. Specifically, AVCHD employs both the H.264 Main Profile (MP) and High Profile (HP). (See Figure 1.) The HP codec provides important image quality advantages over the MP codec. Thus, although AVCHD is marketed as a single codec, it uses a pair of codec profiles. (The HP codec is downward compatible with the MP codec.) Moreover, although AVCCAM and NXCAM are marketed as professional formats, both use the same AVCHD HP codec. As you can see, understanding AVCHD, AVCCAM and NXCAM is more complex than understanding DVCAM, DVCPRO and DVCPRO50.

 

Figure 1. HD H.264/AVC profiles and levels

BASELINE PROFILE

The lowest profile used by an HD camera is BP. BP supports only the less efficient context-adaptive variable-length coding (CAVLC). Level 3.1 supports 720p30 at up to 14Mb/s, while Level 3.2 and Level 4.0 support 720p60 at up to 20Mb/s — although at such a low data rate, only 720p30 would be visually acceptable. Level 4.1 supports 720p60 at up to 50Mb/s.

MAIN PROFILE

Figure 2. 16 x 16 pixel macroblocks each with four 8 x 8 subblocks

 

MP offers the next performance level. MP supports both CAVLC and the more efficient context-adaptive binary-arithmetic coding (CABAC). MP also supports B-slices in addition to I- and P-slices. Because B data packets provide H.264 with its greatest encoding efficiency, MP decreases the probability of compression artifacts upon rapid motion. AVCHD uses MP and higher profiles.

A B-reference is generated when two motion vectors are defined from the displacement between the Current Block and Reference Blocks. With H.264, “bi” means two vectors — not two directions as it does for MPEG-2.

Several levels may be used with MP. Level 4.0 supports 720p59.94 and 1080i59.94 up to 20Mb/s (17Mb/s), while Level 4.1 supports data rates up to 50Mb/s (22Mb/s to 24Mb/s). The ability of Levels 4.0 and 4.1 to support 1080i59.94 means that 23.976fps can be recorded after applying 2:3 pulldown. This capability also means that 1080p29.97 can be recorded as 1080i59.94/29.97PsF because its frame rate is equal to the 29.97fps used by 1080i59.94.

Figure 3. Four prediction modes for 16 x 16 luma blocks

HIGH PROFILE

HP offers all the capabilities of MP (CABAC coding and B-slices) plus an optional capability that greatly improves codec efficiency — the ability to dynamically switch between 8 × 8 and 4 × 4 submacroblocks during compression. Image areas with high detail are compressed using 4 × 4 pixel blocks, while areas with low detail are compressed using 8 × 8 pixel blocks. The latter generates less data; therefore, more bandwidth is available for data from areas with fine detail.

During encoding, each 16 × 16 pixel macroblock is partitioned into four 8 × 8 submacroblocks and 16 4 × 4 submacroblocks. (See Figure 2.) The encoder can switch among working with 16 × 16 blocks, 8 × 8 blocks and 4 × 4 blocks. When predictions are made for 16 × 16 macroblocks, four modes are used. (See Figure 3.) When predictions are made for 8 × 8 submacroblocks, nine modes are used. (See Figure 4.) Canon AVCHD camcorders were the first to use HP H.264. Shooters quickly found MP software decoders were unable to decode Canon recordings.

Figure 4. Nine prediction modes for 8 x 8 submacroblocks

An HP encoder supports 720p59.94 and 1080i59.94 using multiple levels. Level 4.0 supports data rates up to 20Mb/s (17Mb/s). Level 4.1, used by AVCHD, AVCCAM and NXCAM, supports data rates up to 50Mb/s (22Mb/s to 24Mb/s). Blu-ray employs Level 4.1 using a video data rate up to 40Mb/s.

Level 4.2, available in camcorders using AVCHD 2.0, supports a data rate up to 50Mb/s (28Mb/s) for 1080p59.94. When AVCHD is recorded on a DVD, the disc's maximum spin speed limits the data rate to 17Mb/s. Therefore, when you shoot either MP or HP Level 4.1, or HP Level 4.2, you will not be able to archive to a DVD.

GOP STRUCTURE

Each frame is encoded as one or more I-, P- and B-slices. Typically, every half-second, an H.264 encoder outputs an I-frame — a picture with all intra-encoded slices.

AUDIO ENCODING

H.264/AVC encodes stereo audio using ACC or LPCM audio. AVCHD audio is restricted to AC-3 Dolby Digital 2.0 stereo or 5.1 surround. (NXCAM camcorders record un-compressed audio using PCM audio sampled at 48kHz.)

 

Steve Mullen is the owner of Digital Video Consulting.

 

 

Jim Alfonse
Tri-Sys Designs
www.Tri-SysDesigns.com
jim@tri-sysdesigns.com

 

These general interest articles are sent out occasionally as a service to my friends and clients. Enjoy.

All views and information are presented by the credited author and/or website.

If you know of anyone who you think would like to receive these articles, have them send me an e-mail.
If you would like to be removed from this list send me an e-mail.

A fantastic Tip on how to quickly synchronize a music beat to the Video in the Timeline. Same thing for synchronizing a Video frame to existing audio in the Timeline.(Please visit the site to view this media)

This tip will show you how to customize Timeline tracks or Bin backgrounds with your preferred colors, not the ones provided by Avid

(Please visit the site to view this media)

(Please visit the site to view this media)

A nice tip on how to ‘steal’ settings from other users, such as a Bin Views, Timeline Views or Keyboards Layouts

http://www.ytips.net/stealing-settings/

(Please visit the site to view this media)

 

This tutorial from Igor Ridanovic covers a lot of ground in very little time.

This is what we learn:

1. Make a bumpy surface metal plate with etched logo.
2. Make a laser beam (it looks so-so, but you can do a better job than this).
3. Make a puff of smoke.
4. Create simple sound effects in DS.

Keep in mind that 3D DVE, the effect that's playing the central role here is only an 8-bit effect and may not be appropriate for high end work depending on the color precision you need. The tutorial comes with a free downloadable preset available at www.hdhead.com.

(Please visit the site to view this media)

(Please visit the site to view this media)

 

Extrude and bend text in Avid Media Composer using Boris Continuum Complete's Extruded Text filter.